Armor-piercing ammunition made of depleted uranium (DU) was first used in combat by American and British forces during the 1991 Gulf War. Since the Gulf War, the repeated use and rapid proliferation of DU ammunition have firmly established it as a tool of modern warfare. Depleted uranium ammunition is not universally accepted, however, because of concerns over depleted uranium's health and environmental effects.

AN OVERVIEW OF DEPLETED URANIUM MUNITIONS

Depleted uranium is the low-level radioactive waste product of the uranium enrichment process. The United States alone has produced approximately 700 million kilograms of DU. Recent disclosures indicate some of the United States' depleted uranium stockpiles (and the ammunition made from them) contain plutonium and neptunium. Depleted uranium is normally stored in sealed containers to prevent its release into the environment, but it is also used in military and commercial applications.

Depleted uranium's extreme density and pyrophoricity (ability to burn) made it attractive for use in ammunition called kinetic energy penetrators. This ammunition does not explode; rather, it relies upon density and velocity to pierce its target. Additionally, a Russian arms manufacturer has developed a high explosive anti-tank round encased in depleted uranium, and a similar round is under development by an American firm.

When a DU kinetic energy penetrator impacts a target, US Army research shows that between 10 and 70 percent of the round oxidizes. Most of the oxides created are respirable in size (less than 5 microns) and insoluble. The dust created by an impact (roughly 0.5 to 3 kg per 120mm tank round) is scattered mainly in, on, and within 50 meters of the target, though some of the particles can remain suspended in the air for hours and travel downwind.

Depleted uranium presents the greatest risk to human health if fragments are embedded in the body, or a person inhales or ingests DU dust. During and after the Gulf War, thousands of American and coalition soldiers and local civilians may have inhaled or ingested DU dust while climbing on and entering contaminated equipment. Unfortunately, the health effects of inhaled and ingested depleted uranium dust on exposed veterans and civilian populations have not been studied. However, a study of several American veterans wounded by DU fragments has found elevated levels of DU in veterans' urine, the presence of depleted uranium in veterans' semen, abnormal reproductive hormone levels, and subtle neurocognitive problems.

Recent US military studies of mice found that depleted uranium fragments break down over time, releasing DU particles into the bloodstream which deposit primarily in the kidney and bone and to a lesser degree in the brain, testes, lymph nodes, and other organs. DU also crosses the placenta of pregnant female mice and deposits in the fetus.

Observed health effects include decreased litter size in mice born to DU-implanted females and neurocognitive problems. In vitro studies found DU induces mutagenicity and cellular changes that may lead to cancer. US military researchers attribute depleted uranium's short-term effects to its heavy metal toxicity, and its long-term effects to a combination of toxicity and alpha radiation. Based on their findings, US military researchers have called for further studies of depleted uranium's carcinogenicity, immunotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and male and female reproductive effects.

The proliferation of DU ammunition virtually ensures its use in the conflicts of the 21st Century. The amount of depleted uranium released in future wars could easily eclipse the 290 metric tons used in the 1991 Gulf War or the 9 metric tons discharged during the 1999 war in Kosovo. The United States has established a code of conduct for the use of depleted uranium ammunition that includes failing to adequately protect soldiers from exposure, withholding warnings from civilian populations, and neglecting to clean up DU contamination. If the American government's behavior is adopted by other nations in future conflicts, the health and environmental effects of the use of depleted uranium ammunition could significantly increase over time.

APPROACHES TO THE PROBLEM

Scientific. There is a lack of research specifically examining the health and environmental effects of depleted uranium ammunition. Research on the effects of inhaled, ingested, and embedded depleted uranium (alone and containing plutonium) on exposed adults and children should be conducted and/or reviewed by an international group of medical and scientific experts.

Health and Safety Regulations. Health and safety laws generally require the use of protective equipment in contaminated areas and medical testing of individuals with known or suspected exposures to dangerous toxins. Adherence to health and safety regulations could protect soldiers and civilians from exposure to depleted uranium.

Legal. The international community has agreed to restrict the use of certain weapons that can cause widespread and/or lasting harm. The legality of depleted uranium ammunition under existing international agreements has been challenged, and should be reviewed. For example, the release of depleted uranium may result in "superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering" to civilian populations, which would place DU ammunition in violation of Article 35 of the 1977 Protocol to the Geneva Convention.

If depleted uranium ammunition is determined to be illegal under existing agreements, or it becomes subject to a comprehensive prohibition, the United Nations or the International Criminal Court could hold governments and individuals accountable for its use. The threat or imposition of reparations could induce governments and armed forces to act responsibly by providing warnings to civilian populations and conducting post-conflict clean up of DU contamination.

Human Rights. Civilian populations should be protected from exposure to depleted uranium contamination. The dictates of conscience require careful consideration of the effects spent DU ammunition may have on women, children, and men, and the land and water people depend upon to survive.

Economic. The life cycle cost for depleted uranium ammunition should be determined and compared with the costs of other anti-armor weapons. The expenses of creating depleted uranium through mining, enriching, and processing uranium should be added to the costs of manufacturing, testing, purchasing and using DU ammunition. The aggregate cost should also include the expenses of safety training and protective clothing for soldiers, medical monitoring of soldiers and civilians for exposure, health care for exposed veterans and civilians, restricted use of contaminated lands, clean up of contaminated soil and water, disposal of DU contamination, and military public relations efforts to deny depleted uranium's effects.

Military Necessity. Modern technology has produced a large inventory of missiles and projectiles capable of destroying tanks and other armored targets. The United States alone has 35 different anti-armor weapons, plus another 10 weapons under development. Depleted uranium ammunition is but one tool in a vast anti-armor arsenal, and its necessity is questionable in the face of a vastly diminished armored threat.

ALTERNATIVES

Tungsten Alloy. Tungsten alloy competes with depleted uranium for use in kinetic energy penetrators. Both are equally as dense (19 g/cm3), but DU has the added advantage of burning upon impact. Tungsten alloy ammunition is widely used, and, in US Army tests, has demonstrated its ability to penetrate even dense depleted uranium armor. Independent ballistics experts should assess whether tungsten alloy, as it exists now or after further development, could meet the armor piercing needs of armed forces.

Accountability. The use of depleted uranium ammunition could potentially be justified if health and safety laws provided soldiers and civilians with adequate protection from exposure to DU. Violations of established standards would therefore allow individuals and/or governments to use domestic and international courts to redress problems arising from the restricted use of contaminated land and adverse effects on public health.

IMPEDIMENTS

The Pentagon. Ongoing Pentagon resistance to investigations of depleted uranium ammunition represents the most significant impediment to a resolution of this issue. The Pentagon is primarily interested in safeguarding the use of depleted uranium ammunition, but it is also strongly influenced by a desire to avoid the financial obligations of cleaning up DU contamination and assisting ailing veterans and civilians.

Pentagon spokesmen have consistently asserted that Gulf War depleted uranium exposures were minimal in scope and severity, but US congressional investigators recently confirmed that the Pentagon has no data to support its position. This finding casts doubt upon the accuracy of the Pentagon-funded RAND Corporation report, which concluded that not one Gulf War veteran was exposed to enough depleted uranium to cause any health problems.

Inexplicably, the Pentagon has refused to comply with a 1993 congressional mandate to study the health effects of inhaled and ingested depleted uranium dust. In 1999, the Pentagon obstructed a United Nations investigation of the use of DU in Kosovo. The Pentagon is likely to continue impeding investigations of depleted uranium's hazards.

Economic. Those who profit from the manufacture and sale of depleted uranium ammunition, and those who desire to use it, are maneuvering to ensure the unrestricted future use of DU munitions. Among the parties with an economic stake in the continued use of DU ammunition are the US Department of Energy, US Department of Defense, US ammunition manufacturers such as Primex Technologies and Aerojet Corp., and arms merchants in Russia, Pakistan and other countries. Governments and armed forces also have an interest in downplaying depleted uranium's hazards in order to avoid the exorbitant costs of cleaning up and disposing of DU contamination.

Proliferation. Since 1991, depleted uranium ammunition has proliferated to more than 20 nations, including Russia, China, Iran, Israel, Turkey, and Pakistan. As more armed forces acquire and use DU ammunition, the difficulty of preventing depleted uranium's health and environmental effects increases.

Effectiveness. Depleted uranium ammunition is effective in piercing armored targets, such as tanks. Since military decision-making focuses on short-term goals as opposed to long-term effects, military planners are unlikely to give due consideration to the health and environmental consequences of using DU ammunition.

Uncertainties of Science. There is considerable debate within the scientific community over the effects of low-level radiation emitters, such as depleted uranium. In addition, the role of depleted uranium in health problems affecting Gulf War veterans and Iraqi civilians remains controversial. While additional scientific research may clarify some areas of concern, the uncertainties of science will likely propagate the dispute over the health and environmental effects of DU. The extent to which plutonium contaminates the DU ammunition shot in the United States, Iraq, Kuwait, Bosnia, Puerto Rico, and Kosovo remains unknown and limits thorough health assessments.

DU "Experts." An increasing number of self-proclaimed DU "experts" have exaggerated the dangers of depleted uranium and infused the debate with a level of confusion that inhibits productive dialogue and investigation.

A PROPOSED SOLUTION

There is a clear and convincing need for additional research to clarify depleted uranium's health and environmental effects. Future research by international experts should examine the amounts of depleted uranium oxides likely to be inhaled or ingested in a range of exposure scenarios, and the possible short- and long-term effects these levels of exposure could have on women, men, and children. When the levels of plutonium and neptunium in America's DU ammunition are revealed, additional health assessments should be performed.

While additional research is conducted, domestic and international courts should hold governments and armed forces accountable for failing to protect soldiers from exposure, withholding warnings from civilian populations, and neglecting to clean up DU contamination. Strict adherence to health and safety laws could prevent or minimize depleted uranium's potential adverse health and environmental effects.

The most practical way to prevent the impacts of depleted uranium ammunition, however, is to persuade armed forces to replace DU ammunition with alternatives capable of meeting their armor piercing needs. A review of the life cycle costs of depleted uranium ammunition and an appeal to the human rights concerns of individuals and governments could induce armed forces to use alternative weapons that satisfy their short-term tactical requirements.

A comprehensive approach involving research, accountability, and adoption of alternative anti-armor weapons is needed to address the health and environmental consequences of the use of depleted uranium ammunition.

Dan Fahey
Military Toxics Project
P.O. Box 21309
Washington, DC 20009 USA
(202) 232-1880
mtpdu@dclink.com